The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Is Still Alive - 1269 Words

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is Still Alive Cells that live and multiply forever were harvested and cultured from a black woman named Henrietta Lacks. Many people made a profit off of her cells, and she nor her family knew anything about it. â€Å"Black scientists and technicians, many of them women, used cells from a black woman to help save the lives of millions of Americans, most of them white. And they did so on the same campus- and at the very same time- that state officials were conducting the infamous Tuskegee syphilis studies† (Skloot 97). Many citizens are unaware of this dehumanizing act that lasted 40 years; the Tuskegee Syphilis Study has impacted society along with individuals related to the study for over 85 years. The study†¦show more content†¦The men had to consequently suffer and deal with pus filled sores covering their body, including their mouths, just so the scientists could study the lasting effects of untreated syphilis. Suffering from syphilis was not what the men signed up for, and to them, there seemed to be no way out of the suffering. Even research by the Center for Disease Control (CDC), â€Å"Found nothing to show that subjects were ever given the choice of quitting the study.† Even though the men most likely felt trapped, they still had to go on with their everyday lives, which included their healthy significant others. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study did not only affect the participants, it also created a path for families to be unknowingly infected with syphilis. As Yoon revealed, â€Å"Since 1975, the Government†¦ providing lifetime medical benefits to the 22 wives, 17 children, and 2 grandchildren with syphilis they may have contracted as a direct result of the lack of treatment accorded the men in the study.† Because participants were uninformed that they were infected with syphilis, they innately went on with their daily life, which included sexual intercourse. This is how the horrific disease of syphilis was spread to their significant others and children; however, the participants’ and families’ physical health was not the only aspect of their health affected. Through research, YoonShow MoreRelatedTuskegee Syphilis Paper1481 Words   |  6 PagesTuskegee Syphilis Experiment Name University of Phoenix Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment The Tuskegee Syphilis experiment was a 40 years study from 1932 to 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama. The experiment was conducted on a group of 399 impoverished and illiterate African American sharecroppers. This disease was not; however revealed to them by the US Government. They were told they were going to receive treatment for bad blood. The study proved to be one of the most horrendous studies carriedRead MoreThe Tuskegee Study Of Untreated Syphilis1579 Words   |  7 Pages The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male: Research Ethics Tenzin Choeying Lehman College NUR 302 Ways of Knowing Nursing Research Faculty: Dr. Linda Scheetz 10/12/2016 In 1932, US public health service launched most shameful and hideous non-therapeutic experiment on human being in the medical history of the US. The practitioner on the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment promised free medical care to over hundreds of African American desperately poorRead MoreApa Guidelines Violated in Miss Evers Boys Essay641 Words   |  3 Pagesviolated to the extreme . The movie, which illustrates the Tuskegee Study conducted by a group of southern doctors in 1932, tells the story of a group of African-American men who are being unknowingly studied to see if untreated syphilis reacts the same way in African-Americans that it does in white men. At first, treatment is given to them but once the funds for the study are cut and treatment is no longer made available for 14,000 men, the study goes on without them knowing they have stopped receivingRead MoreThe Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment : A Black Massacre1514 Words   |  7 Pages The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Another Black Massacre Alesha Jones History Significance of Race in America Section 009 Professor Abu Sayeed The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment was a clinical research study that took place in Macon County, Tuskegee, Alabama. The experiment was coordinated by the United States Public Health Service and carried out for forty years (Jones, 1). The experiment began in 1932 and ended in 1972, causing harm toRead MoreThe Underground Railroad Essay1530 Words   |  7 PagesRailroad. Caesar, a new arrival from Virginia, urges Cora to escape with him and Cora seized this opportunity of freedom. Their plan doesn’t go accordingly when Cora kills a young white boy who tries to capture her. Despite all their troubles, they still head north, but are hunted in the process. Whitehead’s creative conception of the Underground Railroad is actually a network of tracks and trains stops under the lovely Southern Soil. In the novel, The Underground Railroad, Colson Whitehead accuratelyRead MoreThe Tuskegee Study Of Untreated Syphilis1285 Words   |  6 Pagesinitiated a study entitled the â€Å" Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male† in Macon County, Alabama to record the natural course of latent, untreated syphilis in Black males and explore treatment possibilities (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2017). Macon County, Alabama, in which the town of Tuskegee is located, was selected as the location of this study because earlier studies conducted in the rural South by the USPHS to determine the prevalence of syphilis among BlacksRead MoreThe Impact Of History And Counseling Theories1046 Words   |  5 Pagesstate that as a people there is a deception in thought that the practice of the counseling / therapy profession is morally, ethically, and politically neutral (Sue and Sue, 2008). As an African woman, I know this to be incorrect. When you have studies that driven by European and American individuals focused primarily on Caucasian participants how can you expect there to be any cultural benefit. If a counselor has biases towards African Americans, there will be hindrances towards the quality ofRead MoreWomen During The First Half Of The Twentieth Century951 Words   |  4 Pagesfrom chronic illnesses; such as syphilis specifically among African-American women and their families. The economic problems in the post-war years made it hard for African-American woman to get access to the new types of medicine that were developed. â€Å"During this time period scientist were working on developing a study called The Tuskegee Syphilis Study. â€Å"It was later called â€Å"the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male†, was a notorious clinical study that has become a by word for racistRead MoreTuskegee Experiment Essay2920 Words   |  12 Pages The purpose of this paper is to elaborate on the Tuskegee Experiment based upon previous international study, it will also state the original study and where did it originate, the purpose of the study and the results. It will also state who or what were the principal investigators, the participants (gender, race, age), why and how did this study end. The original study of the Tuskegee research was a disreputable medical experiment carried out in the United States between 1932 and 1972Read MoreUnethical Government Human Experiments : Unethical1833 Words   |  8 Pagesapologized. Experiments such as the â€Å"Tuskegee Study of Syphilis in the Negro Male† has taken the lives of the victims involved in the study. This is an infamous study government officials conducted in 1932, the objective of this study was to record the effects of syphilis in black people (About Us). Jackson 2 In total 600 men were victims of this experiment, 201 of the men were uninfected, they were known as control subjects, and 399 out of the 600 men actually had syphilis. The researchers told the men

Not Prepared for This War Male Role Only Essay - 683 Words

Women have fought decades to be seen as equal to men. All though all these good things happened because of woman’s movement. However, this doesn’t mean women must play male roles in the twenty first century. Placing women front line in combat is setting them up in a field full of grenades that represent distress emotion and the lack of physical strength that in the end will have a negative effect on females and their fellow soldiers they are fighting with. There are specific roles that only a male should take. For example, protecting and serving our country. Women should have equal rights, women have the disadvantage of fighting in combat where their safety is on the line and their physical biological and emotional restrictions will hold†¦show more content†¦Unlike men, a women’s pelvic ring is wider which, make it easier to carry and give birth to a baby (Delavier). Women having the ability to reproduce, allowing our population to increase. With our po pulation growing our economy will grow, and we are less likely for extinction. Also, a women’s body is programmed to provide bodily nutrients to provide for their baby for example breast feeding. In addition fourteen percent of nursing mothers are being deployed four months after giving birth (Vlahos). The three month period for a baby marks the time for exploring movement and growth. At four months your baby is not as tiny as when they were born. They no longer fit in a baby tub, which they know fit in an adult bath tub where they can easily slip and fall into the water. They are also learning how to crawl and grab objects. This makes them prone to accidents. Their safety is your concern and responsibility as a mother. Even, after their first four months a mother is not adequate enough to leave her baby for excessive period time especially like a deployment which last up to eight to twelve months. As a society we grow up in the norms of what a male and women’s role should be. In addition a study on male and female emotion the correlational analyses revealed positive relationship between social anxiety with aggression and stress for males, and negative relationship between social anxiety and social skills for females (Majed). When you’re in combatShow MoreRelatedThe Role Of Women And Their Participation During The Civil War1397 Words   |  6 Pages Women’s role has evolved through time and it is clear that women did history, but they are not always portrayed in the history books. That is why it is important to analyze the roles of women and their participation during the Civil War. This was an important event that marked a change the role of women in society. There are narratives and records of how women experienced, and contributed during the Civil War. The women from the North, South, elite and poorer social status, they all had differentRead More Women in the Military Essay667 Words   |  3 PagesRevolutionary war. There have been brave women in war posing as men so they could fight. There are a select few women who could handle war and combat. The negative aspects of women in combat outweigh the positive. Women should not participate in military combat. However they may join the military and served in traditional roles such as nurses and office staff. The difference between men and women is women are physically weaker, they have vital personal needs, and they attract male troops. WomenRead More The Role of Queen Guinevere in King Arthur and His Knights Essay examples1112 Words   |  5 Pagesby males. But despite her access to the Round Table, she has no legitimate power. She is a woman figure who can be discarded as desired. Her presence in the male dominated arena is a source of discord among them. 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As the gentle sex, women are traditionally associated with the care and creation of life rather than with its destruction. However, over the past twenty years, women have increasingly se rved, and continue to serve, with valor and integrity in the Unites States Armed Forces (Kamarack, 2015). Although women have successfully proved themselves in the military, they should be restricted from entering into direct combat because they areRead MoreRole Of Women During World War II950 Words   |  4 PagesHistory 116 December 1 2015 The Role of Women in World War II In the early 19th century the role of women was typically categorized as doing chores around the house and raising children. Seldom were women seen with real jobs or in positions of full-time employment but as the United States developed so did the role of women. One of the largely contributing factors to the evolution of women’s role in society was the conditions of the US at war. World War II was a war that required more military andRead MoreComparison Of Emma Watson And Tim Watsons Speech941 Words   |  4 PagesEnglish Language Assignment In this essay I will be comparing and analysing Emma Watsons ‘Gender Equality is your issue too’ speech, executed on the 20th of September, 2014. Watson had pre-prepared this speech, as it was performed for the HeForShe campaign at the UN Headquarters, in New York. Alongside Tim Collins’ speech to the 1st Battalion of the Royal Irish Regiment, in Iraq, 2003 – of which was an eve-of-battle rousting and of which had not been prepared, prior to British troops enteringRead MoreAn Analysis Of Elaine Tyler s Connection Between Foreign And Political Policy And The Dynamics Of American Families During The Post1173 Words   |  5 Pagesdynamics of American families during the post war and Cold War eras through the idea of containment. Her main argument is that domestic containment was bred from political containment. 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Unfair Dismissal Free Essays

The latter is a civil law remedy essentially based upon breach of the contract of employment. From the point of view of the employee, there are significant deficiencies in this civil law relief as a remedy. Because an employer is generally entitled under the terms of the contract to dismiss upon giving the appropriate period of notice as stipulated by the contract, damages will often be limited to the loss of earnings during that period. We will write a custom essay sample on Unfair Dismissal or any similar topic only for you Order Now The civil law does not provide for a remedy by way of reinstatement.There is no remedy based upon breach of contract for failure to follow appropriate grievance and disciplinary procedures prior to dismissal. However, it will be argued below that the development of the concept of unfair dismissal and the range of remedies available in respect of it has perhaps empowered the employee to too great an extent with the ironic result that he may ultimately be less well served as a result of a consequent reluctance on the part of prospective employers to expose themselves to the consequences of employing an individual who will in due course be in a position to pursue such a powerful array of relief against them.Unfair dismissal is a wholly distinct concept first introduced by the Industrial Relations Act 1971. Section 94 of the Employment Rights Act 1996 (ERA 1996) now provides: An Employee Has The Right Not To Be Unfairly Dismissed By His Employer. This is the basis of the remedies which may now be pursued in the Employment Tribunal but it is unhelpful as a definition. In W Devis Sons Ltd v Atkins, Phillips J described unfair dismissal as narrowly and to some extent arbitrarily defineda form of words which could be translated as being equivalent to dismissal ‘contrary to statute’. This underlines the fact that the law of unfair dismissal is entirely a creature of statute and as such is far more highly codified than the civil remedy. Since the remedy of unfair dismissal and the legal machinery by which it is awarded were born in an era of strife in industrial relations, it is perhaps unsurprising that the balance between the rights of the employee not to have his employment terminated without justification and the interests of the employer (often profit-motivated) to be able to select, regulate and remove employees is often highly contentious and political.There is frequent disagreement as to whether employees are sufficiently protected or whether, by contrast, the employer is now so beset by procedural requirements and sanctions for their breach that the recruitment and dismissal of employees has ceased to be able to respond freely to the merits or demerits of the individual employee and the need to control a workforce in the interests of the particular compan y or undertaking in question. Types of Dismissal The three types of dismissal are contained in s. 95(1) of ERA 1996: Direct dismissal; Expiry of a fixed term;Constructive dismissal. The first is seemingly the most straightforward but is not without its own complications. Instructions that may appear unequivocal to the layman will not necessarily be interpreted by the Employment Tribunal or the Employment Appeal Tribunal as constituting a dismissal. Thus, in Futty v D D Brekkes Ltd a foreman on Hull Docks told an employee that if he did not like his job he should f*** off!. The tribunal held that this instruction should be seen in the context of the manners of expression usual on Hull Docks and that it should not be regarded as a dismissal.By contrast, a dismissal may be found even though the termination of employment is not expressed in that way: in Robertson v Securicor Transport Ltd, the claimant had broken a company rule by signing for a contained which had not been received. He was presented with the alternative of resigning or being dismissed. He chose resignation but this was held in effect to be a dismissal. The second type of dismissal is infrequent by comparison but occurs where the employee is employed under a contract for a limited term, dismissal occurs if that term expires without being renewed under the same contract.In these circumstances, however, the reasonableness of the employer’s action in not renew ing the contract must be assessed. If there are genuine circumstances giving rise to a fixed term contract such as the work being of a temporary nature or the employment being for a specific purpose which has come to an end, it may be reasonable not to renew the contract after expiry. (Regard should now be had to the Fixed-Term Employees (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2002 which provide protection to those on fixed-term contracts such as teachers in higher education and senior employees in the Health Service. The third type of dismissal – constructive dismissal – can often be the most difficult to define in practice. S. 95(1)(c) ERA 1996 states that a resignation will amount to a dismissal if the employee terminates the contract under which he is employed (with or without notice) in circumstances in which he is entitled to terminate it without notice by reason of the employer’s conduct. This is a somewhat circular definition but the operation of the doctrine of constructive dismissal can be illustrated by reference to the notorious case of Western Excavating (ECC) v Sharp.An employee had been suspended without pay as part of disciplinary proceedings. As a result, he was short of money and asked his employer for a loan. When this was refused, he resigned in order to avail himself of accrued holiday pay. Surprisingly both the tribunal and the Employment Appeal Tribunal (EAT) found this to be a case of constructive dismissal. However, the employee lost on further appeal when Lord Denning held that for there to be a constructive dismissal, the employer’s actions had to amount to a significant breach of the contract of employment.This therefore applied a contractual analysis more akin to the civil law wrongful dismissal approach. However, as will be seen below, cases of constructive dismissal are now regulated by the statutory disciplinary and grievance procedures introduced by the Employment Act 2002 (EA 2002). It will be argued that these new requirements have the effect of tipping the scales too far in favour of the employer in many cases. Fairness Section 98(4) of ERA 1996 defines this concept: the question whether the dismissal is fair or unfair (having regard to the reason shown by the employer) – a) depends on whether in the circumstances (including the size and administrative resources of the employer’s undertaking) the employer acted reasonably or unreasonably in treating it as a sufficient reason for dismissing the employee, and (b) shall be determined in accordance with equity and the substantial merits of the case. It should be noted, however, that s. 34 EA 2002 inserted a new s. 98A into ERA 1996 which provides that breach by the employer of a statutory procedure on dismissal, which sets down the minimum procedural requirements, means that the dismissal is in any event automatically unfair. The impact of this development will be considered below. ) Therefore, fair is equated with reasonable and will be a question of fact to be determined by the tribunal drawing on the experience and common sens e of its members who are selected (with the exception of the legally qualified Chairman) from a representative cross-section of the employment environment. However, it has been held that there is to some extent an objective test. In British Leyland (UK) Ltd v Swift it was suggested that the question which should be posed is: is it possible that a reasonable employer, faced with these facts, would have dismissed?Similarly, in Haddon v Van den Bergh Foods Ltd, the EAT suggested that the tribunal should consider whether the employer acted reasonably in invoking the ultimate sanction of dismissal. It was not, however, sufficient for the tribunal to simply ask what they would have done without recognising that their personal views might not accord with reasonableness. It s submitted that there are dangers in both approaches. The so-called objective test of the reasonable employer might be regarded by the employee as leaving him vulnerable since it is the reasonable employer rather than the reasonable man that is set as the benchmark.If the function of the tribunal is to arbitrate fairly between the employer and the employee, it should not be regarded as appropriate to impose the standards of one upon the other. C onversely, an employer may object to a man on the Clapham omnibus-style test or, worse still, the subjective views of members of the tribunal when confronted with the facts on the ground that neither test provides a proper appreciation of the pressures and constraints upon an employer who is confronted by an employee whose conduct or performance are prejudicial to he particular company or undertaking. Procedure – Dismissal As has been seen above, the new s. 98A ERA 1996 which came into effect on 1st October 2004 renders breach of certain minimum procedural requirements unfair. Schedule 2 of the 2002 Act and the Dispute Resolution Regulations 2004 (DDR 2004) provide for both a standard and a modified disciplinary procedure.By reg 3(1) DDR 2004, the standard procedure applies where the employer contemplates disciplining or taking relevant disciplinary action against an employee and provides that: The employer must set out in writing why he is contemplating dismissing or taking relevant disciplinary action; Prior to the disciplinary meeting the employer must inform the employee of the grounds for taking such action and the employee has to have a reasonable opportunity to consider his response to this information; There must be a disciplinary meeting;The employer must inform the employee of his decision and of a right of appeal; After any appeal hearing, the employer must inform the employee of his decision. The modified procedure (reg. 3( 2)) applies where the employer believes that the employee has committed an act of gross misconduct. In these circumstances, the employer can dismiss the employee summarily but must set out in writing his reasons for doing so and inform him of a right to appeal. Thereafter the procedure is the same. For this procedure to apply, the employer must be entitled to dismiss the employee for gross misconduct at the time when the employer became aware of it or immediately thereafter and it has to be reasonable for the employer to dismiss the employee before enquiring into the circumstances in which the conduct took place. These new statutory procedures seem entirely reasonable and probably do little more than reflect the best practice in place in many places of work even prior to the implementation of the regulations.What is significant, however, is the mandatory and arguably Draconian sanctions that have been set in place in the event of non-compliance. Where the statutory disciplinary procedures have not been complied with, the dismissal is rendered automatically unfair. Further, s. 31(3) EA 2002 provides that in such circumstances the tribunal must increase the award to the employee by 10% and may if it considers it just and equitable in all the circumstances to do so increase it by a further amount but not such as to make the total increase more than 50%.There is, as yet, little indication of how prevalent the application of such sanctions will become in practice but it is submitted that these procedures and sanctions are capable of inflicting great injustice upon an employer. It will be noted from above that the test of fairness set out in s. 98(4) ERA 1996 is qualified (as were the predecessors of this provision) by reference to the size and administrative resources of the employer’s undertaking.It is suggested that this represents a practical and realistic approach to the realities of the workplace: it is not reasonable to judge the human relations performance of a small family engineering company in the Black Country against the standards of ICI! The new procedures, however, do just this. A tribunal is left with no discretion either in judging the fairness of the approach adopted in disciplining or dismissing an employee: an otherwise warranted dismissal will be rendered automatically unfair for procedural irregularities.The same is true to a certain extent with the size of the increase in the award which must be applied. Admittedly, there is some discretion on the basis of what is just and equitable as to whether the increase is 10% or 50% or some point in between but an increase there must be. Again, this will have a disproportionately punitive effect upon small businesses who are probably already able ill to afford the basic and compensatory elements of the standard tribunal award and for which the impact of the mandatory increase will be proportionately greater. Procedure – Grievance (Constructive Dismissal) The implications of the new statutory grievance procedures may be considered even more undesirable in their effect than the potential consequences of the disciplinary procedures which are the subject of criticism above. As a matter of basic philosophy, the introduction of these requirements is more difficult to understand than those in respect of dismissals. Subject to the criticisms above in respect of the effect in practice of imposing nescapable requirements and automatic and rigid sanctions in the event of non-compliance, it is possible to justify legislative attempts to improve procedures adopted prior to the imposition of the ultimate sanction of dismissal – it is in the interests of an employee for an employer to follow a fair and comprehensible process prior to the imposition of disciplinary measures or dismissal. The ultimate justification for statutory grievance procedures is more difficult to fathom.Obviously, it is sensible to promote good practice in relation to the resolution of complaints in the workplace but it may be questioned whether it is necessary to give such encouragement the force of law and to visit failure to observe such formalities with the consequences discussed below. A grievance is defined in regs. 2(1) and 6 of DDR 2004 as a complaint by an employee about an action which his employer has taken or is contemplating taking in relation to him and which could form the basis of a complaint by an employee to an employment tribunalor could do so if the action took place. The principles underlying grievance procedures will appear familiar by reference to the disciplinary procedures but there are some differences in that they impose admissibility requirements which, in addition to the imposition of penalties, will prevent a tribunal hearing certain complaints until the formalities have been complied with. Once again there is a standard and a modified procedure. Under the standard procedure the employee must set out the grievance in writing and send it to the employer.The employer must then invite the employee to a meeting to discuss the grievance which ust not take place until the employer as been informed of the grievance and had an opportunity to consider his response. Following the meeting, the procedure is the same as in a disciplinary situation with an obligation upon the employer to notify the employee of his decision and the subsequent opportunities for appeal. The procedure is modified where the employee has ceased to be employed and either the employer was unaware of the grievance or, if he was, the standard procedure had not been commenced or not completed before the last day of employment.There must be specific agreement between the parties that it would in the circumstances be pointless to follow the standard procedure including the usual attendance at meetings because there is no ongoing employment relationship and the parties have no interest in following the procedures. In such circumstances, the procedure is reduced to the employee setting out his grievance in writing and sending it to the employer and the employer responding in writing. Failure to follow such procedures does not give rise to a remedy in itself.Admittedly, the procedure is of benefit to an employee in the sense that should he make a claim on the basis of such matters as unfair dismissal or discrimination, the failure by the employer to follow the correct procedure may lead to the award of extra compensation in addition to the main award. It is difficult to understand how this significantly enhances the protection already afforded to employees when pursuing the main complaint although it once again places an automatic extra burden upon employers even in situations where this may not be warranted.However, s. 32 ERA 1996 provides that should the fault in failing to follow the prescribed procedure lie with the employee, he will be prevented from pursuing a claim for, inter alia, unfai r dismissal until the procedures have been complied with or are deemed to have been complied with. This may not appear to be of great significance until one considers a situation in which constructive dismissal may arise. An employee is now precluded from pursuing such a claim until the requirements of the grievance procedure have been fulfilled.Admittedly, the modified procedure operates to protect an employee who has already been forced to resign by allowing appropriate methods and extensions of time limits in which retrospectively to comply with the statutory requirements but it is submitted that in many cases this will prove to be a sham and cause unnecessary procedural steps to be taken and paperwork to be generated and may, at worst, lead to the employee being prevented altogether from pursuing such action.The very essence of constructive dismissal is that the conduct of the employer is so extreme that it goes to the root of the contract of employment and he is taken to have repudiated it. Therefore, in the vast majority of such cases, even if the employee remains in employment, it is unlikely that the formal pursuit of a grievance procedure will be capable of remedying the fundamental breakdow n of the relationship between employer and employee. In many such cases, the behaviour of the employer becomes so intolerable that the employee is forced peremptorily to resign.It is difficult to ascertain what the requirement of a written complaint and formal response prior to the commencement of proceedings is designed to achieve in such circumstances. Again, this is relatively new legislation and so there are as yet few practical examples of how this might operate in practice although it is understood that a number of employees have already been taken by surprise when attempting to initiate constructive dismissal claims upon being informed that they are precluded from doing so as a result of non-compliance with the procedure. Wrongful Dismissal – A Preferable Approach?As was observed in the Introduction above, there are severe disadvantages to the employee in pursuing a civil action for wrongful dismissal as opposed to an application to the tribunal based on unfair dismissal. This is because the principal remedy for wrongful dismissal will be an action for damages based on the loss caused by the breach by the employer of the contract of employment. Thus a dismissal without notice or with inadequate notice will constitute a wrongful dismissal unless the employer was reacting to a serious breach of the contract by the employee.What amounts to proper notice will be determined by the terms of the contract. However, this is subject to statutory minimum periods prescribed by s. 86 ERA 1996 which stipulate periods ranging from an entitlement to 1 week which accrues after one month of service to 12 weeks after 12 years of service. (It should be noted, however, that this is effectively the ceiling figure a nd further years of service do not give rise to further periods of entitlement. There is clearly a considerable attraction from an employer’s point of view to basing the entitlement to dismiss upon contractual considerations.Justification for dismissal without notice depends upon the employer having a sound contractual reason for doing so. Examples of such a serious breach justifying summary dismissal have included dishonesty, assault, prolonged absenteeism, gross negligence and drunkenness at work. It is submitted that a restriction of the justifiable ability to dismiss to such clear categories of misconduct serves not only to protect the employee who could not then legitimately be dismissed for more fanciful reasons but also assists the employer who would be forced to understand the gravity of the conduct required before dismissal could occur with impunity.The frequently cited objection to wrongful dismissal as a remedy is the restriction of the compensation which would consequently be recoverable to the statutory notice period. However, to the basic f igure of wages that would have been earned during the notice period will have to be added the value of other remuneration and perquisites such as commission, a company car, share options, pension loss and back pay including any accrued holiday entitlement. In addition, interest would be awarded on the damages from the date of dismissal to the date of hearing. Further, regard will be had to other relevant contractual terms.Thus, the contract is capable of providing procedures which would have to be followed in the event that dismissal was contemplated. In Dietmann v Brent London Borough Council, it was held that even in the face of obvious misconduct, an employer will have to adhere to the terms laid out in the contract if the terms specifically set out what must happen before a dismissal can occur. It is submitted that such an approach may be an effective answer to the criticism that the common law cannot assist an employee in terms of procedural protection in the same way as the statutory procedures do.Whereas the latter are criticised above on the basis that they apply with equal and undiscriminating force to all sizes of undertaking, such contractual protection could be appropriately tailored to individual workplace circumstances. In the event that such procedures were not complied with, the court would be able to award damages beyond the notice period taking into account the length of time that would have been added to the employee’s service had the proper contractual disciplinary procedures been adhered to.In Malik and Mahmud v Bank of Credit and Commerce International (in compulsory liquidation) the House of Lords recognised damages based upon loss of reputation. However, it should be noted that the damages in this case were based upon the breach of an implied term of mutual trust and confidence (specifically, not to run a corrupt and dishonest business so as to damage an employee’s future employment prospects) and it has yet to be seen whether the principle might be given wider application so as to operate in situations in which those prospects are damaged by a capricious and unjustified dismissal.Recently, in Barber v Somerset County Council, a teacher who had to work excessive hours during a restructure suffered a mental breakdown and sued his employer for personal injury. The House of Lords held that the employers were in breach of their duty of care. This was held to be a general positive duty and not one that only arose where the employee was known to be particularly vulnerable. Thus, if the damage to the employee’s mental health can be reasonably foreseen, the employer can be held liable in damages.Such a claim would giv e rise to a far more specific and rationally quantifiable remedy than the general compensatory element which would form part of a tribunal award. It follows from this that the whole approach to the structuring of awards for unfair dismissal by the tribunal may wreak injustice, particularly upon an employer. As has been noted, such an award consists of a basic and a compensatory element. The basic award is arrived at by the application of an arithmetical formula consisting of the claimant’s net weekly wage, a multiplier related to his age and his year’s of service.This element of the award in itself is capable of imposing an arbitrary effect. It is perhaps significant that this approach is exactly the same as that employed in calculating compensation for redundancy. While this might be appropriate in the latter instance where a period of employment is coming to an end through no fault of either employer of employee, there is no logical reason why it should be applied in assessing the measure of recompense to be afforded to an employee as compensation for unfair dismissal.Admittedly, the compensatory element of such an award is, as the term suggests, designed to put the claimant into the position that he would have occupied had the termination of employment not occurred but the usual principal component of the compensatory element – loss of future earnings – is frequently a highly speculative exercise in determining how long the claimant might reasonably be expected to remain unemployed. The common law approach to measure of damages described above can hardly be condemned as less satisfactory. Conclusion While the argument in the preceding paragraph may possibly be regarded as somewhat tongue in cheek, it serves to highlight the fact that there may well be merit in reassessing the efficacy and balance of the current approach of the law in cases of unfair dismissal. It is, of course, unrealistic to suppose that the whole panoply of employment protection put in place since 1971 would ever be dismantled, there is force in the suggestion that the protection regime of employee against employer has now been extended too far.Even prior to the reforms introduced by the Employment Act 2002, it was justified to suggest that the balance of the need of an employer to be able to dismiss when appropriate against the need of an employee to enjoy appropriate job security was incorrect. The acknowledgement that the previous common law approach of awarding damages in cases of wrongful dismissal based on a strict application of contract principles was insufficient to protect the employer aga inst the perceived might of the employer was undoubtedly correct and worthy but the scales were as a result tilted too far in favour of the employer.This runs the risk of discouraging employers from allowing job opportunities to candidates of which they are not absolutely certain or even causing them to refrain from making any appointment through fear of the financial consequences of having to terminate an employee’s employment. As has been demonstrated, the introduction in October 2004 of the statutory disciplinary and grievance procedures represents too great an interference by the legislature in matters which could be left to voluntarily good practice or, where that proves insufficient, appropriate contractual protection.While the major argument advanced above is that the employer has been placed under undue constraint – most recently by the punitive consequences of failing to comply with the statutory disciplinary procedure – it should not be forgotten that the most recent round of legislation to regulate behaviour in the workplace is also capable (as a result of the impact of the statutory grievance procedure upon claims for constructive dismissal) of prejudicing the employee. Bibliography Bowers, J. , A Practical Approach to Employment Law, (7th Ed. , 2005) Holland, J. Burnett, S. , Employment Law, LPC Guide 2005 Selwyn, N. , Selwyn’s Law of Employment, (13th Ed. , 2004) Westlaw www. opsi. gov. uk How to cite Unfair Dismissal, Papers

Database Administration for Configuration - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theDatabase Administration for Configuration and Optimization. Answer: Queries are aged out from the SGA to facilitate the execution of a new query. The queries are aged out quickly, resulting in a hard parse. This could be avoided by allocating extra memory to the library cache (Bryla and Loney, 2013). The volume of the library cache can be raised by updating the value of the SHARED_POOL_SIZE initialization parameter. The page not found error can be rectified by checking the registry entries for $ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID and ensuring the connectivity. Checking if the listener is running properly and restarting the listener could also rectify the error. The EM environment could also be reinitialized with the emca command. If the data to process is more than the available SQL work area, the data is partitioned into smaller chunks of data. A portion of the data is processed in the available memory, while the rest is stored in the temporary tablespace. Using Joins instead of subqueries minimize the processing required. The manual use of transactions reduces the number of writes to the transaction log. Using UNION ALL to combine SELECT statements instead of UNION reduces the processing as duplicates are not avoided (Herodotou et.al, 2011). Using EXISTS instead of COUNT(*) returns a value as soon as the condition is met instead of checking all The VALIDATE command is used by RMAN to detect corruption and enables the database to keep information in backup files while doing it. It also reviews a command block each time it is read or written, to report a timely detection of corruption (Zhu et.al, 2012). The RMAN advise failure command is used to give suggestions about the best repair options available while back up. References Herodotou, H., Borisov, N., Babu, S. (2011, June). Query optimization techniques for partitioned tables. InProceedings of the 2011 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of data(pp. 49-60). ACM. Zhu, Y. C., Luo, D., Yang, X. R., Guo, P. C. (2012). RMAN Backup, Recovery and optimization Based on oracle 10g.Chinese Medical Equipment Journal,10, 023. Bryla, B., Loney, K. (2013).Oracle Database 12c the Complete Reference. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media.

Culture Clash Essays - Buddhist Holidays, Firecracker, Fireworks

Culture Clash THE CULTURE CLASH Western civilization has generally progressed along the path of reasoning and a quest for external truths and facts. Contrary to this, the cultures of eastern civilizations have embarked along a more spiritual and mystical course. Eastern civilization has developed into an almost completely different culture that relies heavily on internal explorations, communion with nature, and mystical superstitions. I was able to observe these differences firsthand when I visited a Buddhist temple downtown on Chinese New Year. Buddhism is the belief in Buddha and his teachings and doctrines. The word Buddha itself means enlightened and that is the word I would choose to describe my experience upon entering the realm of this cradle of eastern beliefs. The temple was a pristine, brilliant red roofed building encompassed by a high brick wall. Two heavy metal doors, supported by gigantic wooden pillars on each side, supplied the only entrance to the temple. Two great golden lions stood on the side of the door, glaring menacingly, as if to frighten off unwanted intruders to the temple. Upon entering the gates, I was informed that I was not to step onto the raised wooden footstep that ran across the entrance through the gate. It would have been rude and disrespectful to do so because it meant you put yourself at a level above that of the monks in the temple. As I passed the gates onto the grounds of the temple, I was greeted by the deafening sounds of hundreds of firecrackers being set off in unison. As the smok e from the firecrackers cleared and I waited for my ears to stop ringing, a beautiful sight greeted me. The scene inside the temple was a mixture of serenity and peacefulness entwined with a feeling of jubilation and celebration. As my eyes spanned across the grand pavilion leading to the temple itself, I was awed at the sights around me. There were beautifully arranged trees and shrubs growing harmoniously with the surroundings. The trees and shrubs, of bonsai fashion, looked like an intricate piece of a marvelous sculpture arranged by some magnificent hand. Though engulfed by hundreds of people, the temple seemingly blended into the surrounding as if to form some ideal picture of harmony. The people were a great marvel to see. Informed by my friends that it was a tradition to get new clothes, new shoes, a new hair-cut, and so on, for the Chinese New Year, I had expected people to be dressed up, but I was caught unexpected by some of the people around me. Some girls wore delicately woven Chinese dresses, imprinted with beautiful designs of flowers, dragons, phoenixes, birds, and other detailed figures. The men were divided into two main categories; the younger boys wearing brand new suits and adorning newly cut hair, while the older men wore the traditional Chinese coats and pants. The whole scene was one of great jubilation and joy. People were cheering and dancing, with an occasional prankster shooting off another firecracker. My friends told me to get use to the sound of the firecrackers all night, for though the firecracker had been originally used to scare off unwanted spirits, it had now come to symbolize a time of great joy and prosperity for the Chinese people. My experience was not fully complete till I walked into the main worship hall of the temple. The room was filled all around me with brilliant gold sculptures of Buddha and other Chinese deities. Each was set on a lavishly decorated table, garnished with an assortment of appealing foods. The aroma of the food was offset by what seemed liked millions of incense in a rice filled pot located at each table. The incense let off an aura of calmness and tranquillity that I had never felt before. I was told that the food and incense were an offering to the gods as well as a tribute to dead ancestors. Also found in head of the room was a large, bronze sculpture of Buddha lying down under a bodhi tree. Directly in front of the sculpture was an old, bald monk that was chanting some strange words to the beat of a drum-like instrument (I later found

Discussion #5 Example

Discussion #5 Example Discussion #5 – Essay Example Topic: Home Schooling Pros and Cons Homeschooling has the benefit of promoting home development due to the support that a child will receive from all family members. Slide ten proposes that the family members will utilize the routines, time and space in the home for promoting child development at home. However, it would be hectic in cases where both the parents are working and in other scenarios such as single parenting. This brings about a massive workload to the parents who will be forced to spare time for homeschooling (Windley, 2006). For the child to receive a quality education, parents will have to make homeschooling a full-time commitment to substantial investment in terms of effort and time. In terms of costs, it will also be expensive for the parents to purchase an up to date curriculum besides to the cost of materials, books, and other stationery. Unschooling is a new phenomenon that requires self-drive and a lot of discipline in making and adhering to a strict study plan. This philosophy is currently gaining popularity due to less pressure associated with the learning mechanism where a child will choose appropriate learning schedule and lessons to complete at any moment. Many schools should start thinking about incorporating unschooling with their regular program to encourage children explore their talents while at the same time indulge in various learning exercises. This setup wold make learning more attractive in terms of stimulating the mind and breaking the monotony of always indulging in books as the only learning routine. This learning mode would not be conducive for the children who need constant motivation to excel in their studies as well as those who need constant competition to excel in class work. The freedom associated with unschooling should be regularly assessed to ascertain its effectiveness in the learning process and impact on child development. ReferencesWindley, C. (2006). Home schooling. New York: Atlantic Monthly Books.

Business Plan for Innovative Clothing Case Study

Business Plan for Innovative Clothing - Case Study Example ...................................................13 5.0 Important Milestones and activities...................................................................14 6.0 Financial statements............................................................................................15 6.1 Assumptions.........................................................................................................15 6.2 Profit and Loss statement...................................................................................16 6.3 Balance Sheet.......................................................................................................17 6.4 Cash Flow statement...........................................................................................18 References..................................................................................................................19 INNOVATIVE CLOTHING 1.1Business goals: Innovative Clothing (IC) will manufacture and market a complete range of branded casual clothing to cover the entire segment of this market. The company will position itself as store chain offering casual clothing of quality which is above expectations of the market, at competitive price and with designs which are simple but at the same time makes the wearer look smart. The company will aim to achieve a turnover of 3 million (Aus $) in the first year and 10$ by the end of third year. It will break even in the first year of operation itself and start generating substantial profits from second year onwards. 1.2 The Company Innovative Clothing is a general partnership firm. The fund for the establishment of the business is equally shared by 5 partners. As a general partnership firm the responsibility is also equally shared among the partners. The entire...The fund for the establishment of the business is equally shared by 5 partners. As a general partnership firm the responsibility is also equally shared among the partners. The entire activities of the business are under the control of a Board of directors in which the 5 partners are included. The company is manufacturing and marketing garments locally. With the experience gained, it wants to enter into retail sales of casual garments in a big way by setting up a chain of retail stores in Sydney. It will open 10 stores in the first year followed by ten more in the second year. The partners collectively have experience in production, marketing and design. They propose to recruit a Chief Executive Officer who will be in charge of operations. The CEO will report to the board represented by the five partners. Innovative Clothing proposes to transfer its manufacturing activity to China because of availability of work force at lower wages and various supports given by the government for investing there. The marketing and design activities will be located at Sydney. The company would try to cater to the needs of entire market for casuals instead of focussing on one particular segment only. For this it will evolve appropriate promotion and branding strategy. 1988-89 to $AUD 11.82 billion in 2006-07.

The Living Theatre- Julian Beck and Judith Malina Term Paper

The Living Theatre- Julian Beck and Judith Malina - Term Paper Example Malina, unlike Piscator, was committed to nonviolence and anarchism. Malina met her husband, Beck, in 1943 when he was a student at Yale University. Beck, a painter, came to share her interest in political theatre and in 1947 the couple founded The Living Theatre. Malina appeared occasionally in films, beginning in 1975. In 2008 she was honored with an annual Artistic Achievement Award from the New York Innovative Theatre Awards (Ruth et al, 15-17). In 2009, she was honored with the Edwin Booth Award from the Doctoral Theatre Students Association of the City University of New York. Other awards include an honorary doctorate from Lehman College among others. Julian Beck, an American actor, director, poet and painter, was born in New York City in 1925 and died in 1985. He briefly attended Yale University, but dropped out to pursue writing and art (Ruth et al, 41-42). He was an Abstract Expressionist painter in the 1940s, but his career turned upon meeting his future wife. He met her in 1943 and quickly came to share her passion for theatre; they founded The Living Theatre in 1947. Beck’s philosophy of theatre carried over into his life. He once said, â€Å"We insisted on experimentation that was an image for a changing society. If one can experiment in theatre, one can experiment in life.† He was indicted a dozen times on three continents for charges such as disorderly conduct, indecent exposure, possession of narcotics, and failing to participate in a civil defense drill (Takis 44). Besides his theatre work, Beck published several volumes of poetry reflecting his anarchist beliefs, two nonfiction books and had several film appearances. He was diagnosed with cancer in 1983 and died two years later. The Living Theatre has staged nearly a hundred productions performed in eight languages in 28 countries on five continents. This is a unique body of work that has influenced theatre all over the

Research Project Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project - Research Paper Example Ukrainian language is related to Russian (Kubicek 2008). However, grammatically, it more closely resembles Polish and Czech. Due to the fact that Ukraine has not been integrated with Europe for over 70 years (as a result of the Soviet Union), there are few English speakers available to an â€Å"English only† tourist (Risch 2011). As such, it would be a strong recommendation to obtain a tour guide and/or hire a native speaker who could act to guide the tourist as well as negotiate prices. The culture displays many nuances that a Westerner would not fully understand unless it was explained to him/her. For instance, like many Asian cultures, Ukrainians are very prone to remove their shoes prior to entering into a house or place of employment. Slippers are often provided for guests so that they can conveniently remove their shoes while still having something to cover their feet while moving around inside. Furthermore, whereas one might be tempted to put one’s feet up on the couch or rest them on a chair, such a practice is frowned upon in Ukraine and other Eastern European countries. Similar to many Mediterranean cultures, Ukrainians often express themselves using high levels of body language. Whereas those from a more Anglo-European background would find this waving of hands and other gestures to be out of the ordinary, even rude, they are used to great effect to convey meaning, levels of irritation, expressions of finality, and frustration with a given topic or person. Due to the effects of communism, many people are non-religious and/or atheist. However, the historical strength of the Orthodox Church is gaining in influence and it is difficult to go very far without seeing the onion domes of the Orthodox churches that dot the countryside. Although the exterior of these churches do not closely mirror those that a Western European or American might be familiar with, the theology of belief is very much similar to that of the Catholic Church from which the Orthodox Church originally derived. The Orthodox Church, or more specifically the Eastern Orthodox Church (to distinguish it from its Greek counterpart) was born from the schism that resulted from the sacking of Constantinople by the Romans during the 1st Crusade (Korostelina 2011). Resultantly, the church leaders in Constantinople (currently Istanbul) decided that they no longer wanted to be considered under the same religious umbrella that Rome placed over them. Consequently, the Orthodox Church was born into existence. It is hard to over-emphasize the importance of the Orthodox Church as it relates to Eastern Europe and specifically Ukraine. This can be understood for a number of reasons but mostly due to the fact that during the days of the Russian Empire (of which Ukraine was a part), the Orthodox Church was considered on equal place with the Tsar (Velychenko 2007). One may remember seeing the double headed eagle that represented Imperial Russia. The eagles’ heads r epresent the head of the state and the head of the church (metropolitan). These metropolitans were and are similar in nature to the position that is occupied by the Pope in Rome. As such, these religious leaders held a great deal of power over the nation and the laws that affected it up until the Bolshevik Revolution. An example of

Epidemiology Of Cholera John Snow Health Essay

Epidemiology Of Cholera John Snow Health Essay It has been over a century and a half when John Snow undertook the study of the Cholera epidemic of 1854 in London. His work, which was published in the 1855 book On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, is considered a milestone in epidemiology. The observations by Snow of the water-born transmission of cholera and the handle of the Broad Street pump was a work of genius that continues to inspire epidemiologists. Appearing before the local body of government on September 7, 1854, John Snow argued that the source of the outbreak of a cholera epidemic was water from a communal water pump. His investigation identified the pump at Broad Street near its intersection with Cambridge Street as the source of contaminated water. Cholera which is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, causes significant morbidity and mortality in many developing countries. This paper examines the cholera epidemics (and pandemics) in recent history i ncluding the outbreak of 1854 in London and the role played by John Snow which had laid the foundations for the modern principles of epidemiology. Introduction It has been over a century and a half when John Snow undertook the study of the Cholera epidemic of 1854 in London. His work, which was published in the 1855 book, On the Mode of Communication of Cholera is considered a milestone in epidemiology. The observation by Snow of the water-born transmission of cholera, and the handle of the Broad Street pump was a work of genius that continues to inspire epidemiologists. Appearing before the local body of government on September 7, 1854, John Snow, an anesthetist in London, argued that the source of the outbreak of a cholera epidemic was water from a communal water pump. Working with the data reproduced in table 1 (Bingham et al., 2004), Snow identified the pump at Broad Street near its intersection with Cambridge Street as the source of contaminated water. What followed is best told in his own words: I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St. Jamess parish on the evening of Thursday, 7th September, and represented the above circ umstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day (Snow, 1855). Each year, outbreaks of cholera to cause death estimated at 120,000 worldwide, with the vast majority occurring in children (WHO, 1995). Epidemiology of cholera is characterized by several key principles including (i) Cases tend to be concentrated in specific location and occur during a specific season (ii) the highest infection rates in children of 1-5 years in areas where infection is endemic (iii) antibiotic resistance patterns often change from year to year, (iv) pathogen strain often exhibit clonal diversity, and (v) prevention measures against the disease include sanitation, hygiene and immunity improvement. Cholera has been ranked as one of the emerging and reemerging infections (Satcher, 1995) facing many developing countries. Several recent events highlight the importance of epidemiological disease include the 1991recurrence of cholera in Latin America (Levine, 1991) ( Ries et al., 1992); the 1994 outbreak of cholera which took place in a Rwandan refugee camp in Goma, Zaire, which resulted in approximately 70,000 cases and 12,000 deaths in (Siddique, 1995), and the outbreak of V. cholerae O139 in the India subcontinent from 1992 to 1993, possibly marked the start of the eighth cholera pandemic (Ramamurthy et al., 1993)(Swerdlow et al., 1993). Pathogenesis and transmission of Cholera Vibrio Cholerae are comma-shaped, gram-negative bacteria that have been the cause of several great long-lasting epidemics and pandemics of diarrheal disease. Many of these pandemics began in the Ganges Valley of India and Bangladesh, which is never free from cholera. Although there are 140 serotypes of V. cholera, until recently only 1 stereotype was associated with several diarrhea. Beginning in 1992, a new V.cholerae stereotype (0139, also known as Bengal) has been associated with sever, watery diarrhea (Faruque et al., 1998) The vibrios never invade the epithelium but instead remain within the lumen and secrete an enterotoxin, which is encoded by a virulence phage. Flagellar proteins involved in motility and attachment are necessary for efficient bacterial colonization, as has been described for Campylobacter. The vibrio hemagglutinin, which is a metalloprotease, is important for detachment of Vibrio from epithelial cells. The secretory diarrhea characteristic of the disease is caused by release of cholera toxin. Cholera toxin is composed of five binding peptides B and a catalytic peptide A (McKenzie et al., 1984). The B peptide, serving as a landing pad, bind to carbohydrates on GM1 ganglioside on the surface of epithelial cells of the small intestine, enabling calveolar-mediated endosomal entry of toxin subunit A into the cell (Laloi et al. 1996). Reverse transport of the subunit A from endosome into the cell cytoplasm is followed by cleavage of the disulfide bond linking the two fragments of peptide A (A1 and A2). Catalytic peptide A1 is generated, leading to the following sequence (Dertzbaugh et al., 1993): A1 interacts with 20-kD cytosolic proteins called ADP-ribosylation factors (ARF). The ARF-A1 complex catalyzes ADP-ribosylation of a 49-kD G-protein (called GsÃŽÂ ±) (Randazzo et al., 2000). Binding of NAD and GTP generates an activated GsÃŽÂ ±, which in turn binds to and stimulates adenylate cyclase. ADP-ribosylated GsÃŽÂ ± is permanently in an active GTP-bound state, resulting in persistent activation of adenylate cyclase. The activated adenylate cyclase generates high levels of intracellular cAMP from ATP. Cyclic AMP stimulates secretion of chlorides and bicarbonate, with associated sodium and water secretion. Chloride and sodium reabsorption is also inhibited. The reabsorptive function of the colon is overwhelmed, and liters of dilute rice water diarrhea containing flecks of mucus-up to 14 L/day, equivalent to the circulating blood volume, causing dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Because overall absorption in the gut remains intact, oral formula can replace the massive sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, and fluid losses and reduce the mortality rare from 50% to less than 1% (Sharma et al., 1997) Epidemiology of Cholera Early Pandemics Since the beginning of the first pandemic in 1817, seven cholera pandemics have occurred (Pollitzer,1959), excluding the seventh pandemic, which took place on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi in (65), pandemics occurred in the Indian subcontinent in the Ganges delta and spread to other countries over many years (Snow, 1855). In 1830, the epidemiological and public health approaches to cholera developed in the context of some understanding of the nature of certain infectious diseases, including smallpox and syphilis, with little agreed differentiation of the fevers. In his late 18th century doctrine, Benjamin Rush describes there was but one fever in the world (Shryock, 1936) had received broad support. Exciting factor in the cholera epidemic was sometimes considered as shaping existing fevers into its own image, and the arrival of cholera coincided with an increase in mortality and/or transferred deaths between categories was questioned. The second cholera pandemic of the early 1830s invaded the British Isles, and was marked by epidemiological observations made by John Snow on the waterborne cholera transmission in London between 1847 and 1854(Snow, 1855). Ships carrying Irish immigrants caused the second pandemic in Canada (Marian, 1957). During the third pandemic (1852-1859), cholera was raging in the United States, and during the 1870s at the end of the fourth pandemic, towns and villages along the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi, rivers experienced cholera (Billings et al., 1975). The fifth pandemic mainly affected South America; causing large epidemics in several countries with Argentina, Chile, and Peru suffering high casualties. (Gil et al. 2004). Robert Koch isolated the cholera bacterium, known as comma bacilli during the fifth pandemic in feces of patients in Egypt in 1883 and India in 1884(Koch, 1884). Between 1899 and 1923, the sixth pandemic involved populations expanded in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East (Pollitzer, 1959). Apart from a large epidemic in Egypt in 1947 (Shousha, 1947), cholera was confined to southern and Southeast Asia since the mid-1920s until the 1961 outbreak of the seventh pandemic in. Both the sixth pandemic and possibly the fifth pandemic were caused by V. cholerae of classical biotype. The Seventh Pandemic The seventh pandemic is considered the largest of the pandemic in the geographical distribution, and was caused by V. cholerae O1- biotype El Tor (Table 2). The 1961 pandemic first invaded the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia and spread to other islands, including Borneo, Sarawak Java, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Sabah. It affected the entire archipelago of South Asia at the end of 1962 (Kamal, 1974). , In Asian mainland, from 1963-1969, the pandemic affected Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Burma, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Cholera reached Pakistan shortly after El Tor, and outbreaks were reported in Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and in the neighboring republics of the Soviet Union (Kamal 1974). By 1970, El Tor cholera had reached the Arabian Peninsula, Syria and Jordan, and to a lesser degree, in Israel (Cohen et al., 1971). The seventh pandemic was in sub-Saharan West Africa in early 1970, causing explosive epidemics as a result of more than 400 000 cases of high mortality, attributed mainly a lack of background immunity of the population, and lack of healthcare infrastructures (Goodgame et al., 1975). During this epidemic, cholera invaded the coast and the interior through waterways and continued to spread to the interior of the Sahel countries by land to travel to nomadic tribes. During the 1970 cholera epidemic, 28 were newly affected were reported and 16 are in Africa (Kaper et al., 1995). In South America, the seventh pandemic which began in Peru in January 1991 caused a return of cholera to the continent after more than a century in an explosive epidemic (Levine, 1991) (Ries et al., 1992). Subsequently, neighboring Ecuador and Colombia also reported cholera epidemic. In each of these countries were people of low socio-economic status, lack of clean water and sanitation, the most affected (Pan American Health Organization, 1991). In April 1991 a small outbreak was reported in Santiago, the capital of Chile (Levine, 1991). Cholera then invaded more countries in South and Central America along the Pacific coast. The Pan American Health Organization estimated that during 1991 and 1992 there were 750,000 cases of cholera and 6,500 deaths in the Americas (Pan American Health Organization, 1991). Recently, the July 1994 outbreak in Goma, Zaire, (Siddique, 1995), is considered one of the worst outbreaks in recent history. Nearly a million people were displaced to Zaire and sheltered in refugee camps as a result of Conflicts between tribes in neighboring Rwanda. Outbreak of cholera in refugee camps affected by poverty caused an estimated 12,000 deaths among Rwandan refugees during a period of three weeks (Siddique, 1995). The seventh pandemic was active causing seasonal outbreaks in several developing countries. However, in 1992, V. cholerae belonging to serogroup non-O1 (now known as O139) caused massive epidemics of cholera in Bangladesh and India and spread to other countries, which could represent the beginning of the eighth pandemic Conclusion John Snow achievement was based on the logical organization of his remarks. He recognized a natural experiment, and its quantitative approach to the analysis of the occurrence of disease in human populations, which is actually a summary of the views of modern epidemiology. It has been over a century and a half since Dr. Snow had published his findings. And in spite the medical and epidemiological advancement in combating the disease, yet, the threat of cholera remains very real and cholera continues to be a global threat to public health and an important indicator of the lack of social development, especially in developing countries which suffer from lack of access to drinking water and lack of sanitation. The disease continues to challenge the increasing proportion of vulnerable populations living in unsanitary conditions, such as slums and refugee camps. The treatment centers and water purification units in poor nations are only interim measures, and steady decline in the spread of the illness should not be seen as a complete victory.

Great Expectations: A thematic analysis :: Great Expectations Essays

Great Expectations: A thematic analysis As the reader begins the book, Dickens instills in the reader a bond with Pip as it is through his eyes in a first person narrative. Dickens’ use of Pip as the narrator is very significant to the telling of the story. We are able to see the progression of Pip as he grows up and his views on the characters in the book. We form an idea about someone from their outward appearance, so having Pip as a narrator it creates a one-sided view about a character because we only see the world from Pip’s eyes and we feel most strongly what Pip is feeling and we feel, about other character what Pip feels about them. Dickens creates sympathy by telling the reader that Pip has never seen his mother & father, instead he sits on their graves trying to find clues that reflect their appearance and personality. Pip at this point is trying to emphasize that his father is superior to his mother, as the antithesis is shown with Joe and his sister. Dickens also tries to make the reader feel sympathy by referring to Pip’s name. On one level his name shows how isolated Pip is, this empathize that Pip created his own nickname. However on a symbolic level his name ‘Pip’ represents the start of life, a seed, as it grows toward its fate. Dickens is trying to emphasize to the reader the solitude of Pip, by using extended sentence structure to increase the tension and prolong the suffering. He also restates that Pip is all alone by using repetition on the word ‘dead’, implicating the loss of 5 of Pip’s siblings, as they died before they were born. The prolonged sentence structure also leads to an ominous word ‘savage lair’. This pathetic fallacy foreshadows the encounter which will make Pip’s life a lot worse. When Magwitch is first introduced, a sad and lonely atmosphere is already established. The fearful connotations in the atmosphere ‘place overgrown with nettles’, the isolated graveyard ‘dark flat wilderness’ and the symbolic place of death ‘the marsh country’ makes Magwitch appearance even more memorable. Magwitch’s social status becomes apparent when Dickens describes his handling of Pip. He addresses Pip in a very rough manner, shaking him and using harsh words. â€Å"Keep still you little devil or I’ll cut your throat!† .This portrayal of Magwitch emphasizes the fact that he is of a lower social class and this ties in with a stereotypical view that someone in the lower half of the social divide will be more likely to commit a crime. This reflects the